Research-Based Interventions for Diverse Learners

Teaching a child to read is one of the most profound responsibilities of an educator. Literacy is the foundation upon which all learning is built, yet many children struggle to develop essential reading skills. According to the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP, 2022), only 33% of fourth graders in the U.S. read at or above proficiency level, highlighting the urgency of effective, research-based reading instruction.

For students to become proficient readers, educators must rely on the science of reading, which emphasizes systematic, explicit instruction in phonological awareness, phonemic awareness, and phonics (National Reading Panel, 2000). These foundational skills are especially critical for students at risk of reading failure, including those with IEPs, English Language Learners (ELLs), and Multilingual Learners (MLLs).

In this article, we will explore the Three PHs of Literacy and provide evidence-based interventions to support diverse learners in developing strong reading skills.

The Three PHs of Literacy: Essential Building Blocks of Reading

Phonological Awareness: The Foundation of Language Processing

Phonological awareness is the ability to recognize and manipulate spoken language at different levels—words, syllables, and sounds. It is an essential pre-reading skill that does not involve print but supports later phonemic awareness and phonics development.

Why It Matters:
Research shows that strong phonological awareness in kindergarten is one of the best predictors of later reading success (Bradley & Bryant, 1983; Lonigan et al., 2000).

Evidence-Based Interventions for Phonological Awareness

• Nursery Rhymes & Songs:These help children recognize sound patterns in spoken language (Goswami, 2001).
• Syllable Clapping Games:Reinforce oral segmentation skills (e.g., ba-na-na → 3 claps).
• Onset-Rime Manipulation:Blending and segmenting sounds within words (e.g., /s/ + /un/ → sun).
• Phoneme Categorization:Identifying words that don’t belong in a set (e.g., “Which word doesn’t belong: cat, bat, sun?”).

Phonemic Awareness: The Bridge to Decoding

Phonemic awareness is the ability to hear, identify, and manipulate individual sounds (phonemes) within words. It is the most advanced level of phonological awareness.

Why It Matters:
The National Reading Panel (2000) found that phonemic awareness instruction significantly improves children’s ability to read, spell, and comprehend text.

Evidence-Based Interventions for Phonemic Awareness

• Elkonin Boxes (Sound Boxes):Students push a counter into a box as they say each sound (Ehri et al., 2001).
• Sound Blending Games:Teacher says sounds separately, and students blend them into a word (e.g., /b/ /i/ /g/ → big).
• Phoneme Manipulation Activities:Changing, deleting, or adding sounds to form new words (Torgesen, 2002).
• Oral Segmenting and Deletion Tasks:Example: “Say ‘train’ without /t/” (rain).

Phonics: The Connection Between Sounds and Print

Phonics instruction teaches students how letters (graphemes) correspond to sounds (phonemes) and how to use that knowledge to decode and spell words.

Why It Matters:
According to Ehri’s Phases of Word Reading Development (1995), systematic phonics instruction helps students progress from decoding letter-by-letter to automatic word recognition, which is essential for fluency and comprehension.

Evidence-Based Interventions for Phonics

• Explicit, Systematic Phonics Instruction:Teach letter-sound relationships in a planned sequence (Carnine et al., 2017).
• Decodable Texts:Use texts that reinforce phonics patterns students have learned (Juel & Roper-Schneider, 1985).
• Word-Building Activities:Using letter tiles or magnetic letters to construct words (e.g., “mat,” then change to “bat”).
• Sentence Reading Practice:Providing short, controlled passages that focus on specific phonics patterns.

The Consequences of Weak Foundational Literacy Skills

When students do not develop strong phonological awareness, phonemic awareness, and phonics skills, the impact extends beyond reading difficulties.

Students with Poor Early Literacy Skills Are More Likely to:

• Struggle with decoding, leading to slow and labored reading.
• Have poor spelling due to difficulty mapping sounds to letters.
• Experience comprehension issues because too much effort is spent on word recognition (Stanovich, 1986).
• Develop low self-esteem and reading avoidance behaviors (Torgesen, 2002).

This is particularly concerning for students with IEPs, ELLs, and MLLs, who may need explicit, targeted instruction to build these skills.

Research-Based Interventions for Specific Student Populations

For Students with IEPs (Students with Dyslexia, Learning Disabilities, etc.)

• Structured Literacy Approaches:The Orton-Gillingham method (Moats & Tolman, 2019) uses multisensory instruction to support struggling readers.
• Intensive, Small-Group Instruction:The IES Practice Guide (Gersten et al., 2008) recommends small-group interventions with systematic phonics instruction.
• Assistive Technology:Text-to-speech, speech-to-text, and audiobooks improve reading accessibility (Shaywitz, 2003).
• Extended Time and Repeated Practice:Students with IEPs often need additional time for mastery.

For English Language Learners (ELLs) & Multilingual Learners (MLLs)

• Oral Language Development:Teaching vocabulary and background knowledge before reading supports comprehension (August & Shanahan, 2006).
• Cognate Awareness:Identifying words with similar meanings in two languages (e.g., family → familia).
• Explicit Phonemic Awareness Instruction:Some phonemes may not exist in a student’s native language, requiring additional exposure.
• Visual Aids and Context Clues:Using pictures, gestures, and real-life examples strengthens language processing.

For All At-Risk Readers

• Early Identification & Progress Monitoring:Frequent assessments help identify struggling readers early (Torgesen, 2002).
• Decodable Books:Ensures students practice phonics skills in controlled contexts.
• Direct, Explicit Instruction:Struggling readers benefit from direct modeling and guided practice.
• Growth Mindset Strategies:Encouraging persistence and effort improves student confidence (Dweck, 2006).

Teaching children to read is an urgent and essential responsibility. The science of reading provides a clear, research-backed framework for instruction, ensuring systematic, explicit teaching of phonological awareness, phonemic awareness, and phonics.

When we use evidence-based practices, we don’t just teach students to read—we empower them for a lifetime of success. Every child, regardless of their learning profile or language background, deserves high-quality literacy instruction.

“Every child has the potential to read. It’s our job to unlock it.” – Dr. Louisa Moats

References

• August, D., & Shanahan, T. (2006). Developing literacy in second-language learners. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
• Bradley, L., & Bryant, P. E. (1983). Categorizing sounds and learning to read. Nature, 301(5899), 419-421.
• Carnine, D., Silbert, J., Kame’enui, E., & Tarver, S. G. (2017). Direct instruction reading (6th ed.). Pearson.
• Ehri, L. C. (1995). Phases of development in learning to read words. Journal of Research in Reading, 18(2), 116-125.
• National Reading Panel. (2000). Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development.
• Torgesen, J. K. (2002). The prevention of reading difficulties. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 35(4), 331-340.